HISTORY OF Afghanistan

Ancient and Classical History
Early Settlements and Kingdoms: The region that is now Afghanistan has been inhabited since prehistoric times. The ancient city of Balkh (also known as Bactra) was one of the oldest cities in the world. It was part of the ancient Persian Empire.
Achaemenid Empire (c. 550–330 BCE): Afghanistan was part of the Achaemenid Empire under Persian rule, which extended across much of Western Asia.
Alexander the Great (c. 330 BCE): After the fall of the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great conquered the region, introducing Hellenistic culture to Afghanistan, notably founding the city of Alexandria in Bactria (modern-day Balkh).
Maurya Empire (c. 305–180 BCE): Following Alexander’s empire, Afghanistan became part of the Maurya Empire, with Emperor Ashoka spreading Buddhism across the region.
Medieval Period
Indo-Greek and Kushan Empires (c. 2nd century BCE–3rd century CE): The region saw the emergence of the Indo-Greek and Kushan Empires, which contributed to the spread of Buddhism and the growth of trade along the Silk Road.
Islamic Conquest (7th century): In the 7th century, Muslim forces began to infiltrate Afghanistan, leading to the gradual spread of Islam. The region became a key part of several Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire (971–1186) and the Ghurid Empire (879–1215).
Mongol Invasions and Later Dynasties
Mongol Invasion (13th century): In the 13th century, Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire devastated Afghanistan, causing widespread destruction and significant demographic changes. The region was later ruled by the Timurid Empire, founded by Timur (Tamerlane).
Timurid and Safavid Dynasties (14th–18th centuries): The region saw the rise of the Timurid Empire, which brought economic and cultural development, especially in cities like Herat. Later, it came under the control of the Safavids, the Persian dynasty.
Modern History
Durrani Empire (1747–1826): In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, often considered the founder of modern Afghanistan, established the Durrani Empire, which united the various tribes and ethnic groups of the region. This period laid the foundation for the modern state of Afghanistan.
British and Russian Rivalries (19th century): Throughout the 19th century, Afghanistan became a focal point in the “Great Game,” a geopolitical struggle between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for influence in Central Asia. Afghanistan was invaded by the British in the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880) but maintained its independence, albeit with British influence over its foreign policy.
20th Century and the Rise of Modern Afghanistan
Independence and Early Republic (1919): Afghanistan formally gained independence from British influence after the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919. The country entered a period of modernization and reforms under King Amanullah Khan, though these were met with opposition from traditionalist factions.
Cold War Era (1940s–1980s): Throughout the Cold War, Afghanistan became a strategic point of interest for both the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in support of the communist government, sparking a brutal and prolonged conflict. The mujahideen, Afghan resistance fighters supported by the U.S. and other countries, eventually forced the Soviets to withdraw in 1989.
Civil War and Taliban Rule
Civil War (1989–1996): After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan descended into a brutal civil war between various mujahideen factions, with widespread destruction. The Taliban, a fundamentalist Islamic group, emerged as a dominant force and took control of most of the country by 1996.
Taliban Regime (1996–2001): The Taliban implemented a strict interpretation of Sharia law, with severe restrictions on women’s rights, public life, and cultural practices. They also provided sanctuary to terrorist groups, including al-Qaeda.
U.S. Invasion and the Fall of the Taliban (2001): Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the U.S. and NATO forces invaded Afghanistan to dismantle al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban from power. This marked the beginning of a prolonged U.S. military presence in the country.
Recent Developments
Afghanistan Under U.S. and NATO Occupation (2001–2021): Afghanistan experienced significant changes, including attempts at rebuilding its infrastructure, developing democratic institutions, and fighting insurgency. However, corruption, insecurity, and a resurgent Taliban continued to challenge stability.
U.S. Withdrawal and Taliban Takeover (2021): In 2021, after nearly two decades of military involvement, the U.S. and NATO forces withdrew from Afghanistan. The Taliban rapidly regained control, culminating in the fall of Kabul in August 2021. The situation led to mass evacuations and ongoing instability in the country.